Page 595 - 1992 - XVIII Congresso Internazionale di Storia Militare

THE U.S. ARMY AND AMPHIBIOUS W AREARE IN WORLD W AR II

jOHN T. GREENWOOD

For fifry years historians have wrirren abour World War 11, but the U.S. Ar·
my's role in amphibious warfare is a much neglected chaprer in the history of the
war and also of me Amcrkan approach ro joim and combined warfare. A subjecr
so vast and complex defìes shorr and simplistic rrearmem. Thus, this paper focuses
mainly on the years from 1940 co 1943 wheo rhe foundatioos were laid for !atee
Americao and Allled success.
Alrhough rhe Army had a long hisrory of joinr amphibious operadons wirh
the Navy, irs focus on land operarions lefr ir linle cime for srudying landing opera·
tions during the prewar years m. However, the Army ha d distinct responsibiliries
for landing operations, "joim overseas expedirions," a od joim war plans wirh rhe
Navy under che Joinr Army a.nd ~avy Board (Joinr Board) rhar was escablished
in 1903 to coordinare War and Navy Deparrmem planoing an d operations (2)_
With che publication of irsjoint Ovmeas Expedilions in 1933 and thenjoinl Ac-
IÙ!n of rhe Army a11d rhe Navy in 1935, the Joint Board laid ouc a coordinaced a p·
proach co "joinr overseas expedirioos'' a od specific missions for the Army, Navy,
and Marine Corps. For rhe Army these ioduded " joinr overseas movements" and
"landings anacks againsr shore objectives'' m.
j oinr lwion was co secure "effective coordination" berween the services, bue
i c was besct wirh ofren vague and overlappiog respon.sibil.icies becween che sea a nd
land forces. Nonechcless, ir and che imerservice workings of che Joim Board escab-
lished sound foundations for che future developmenr of joinr war planning, com·
mand suucrures, wart:ime opentions and for rhe establishment of che Joint Chiefs
4
of Sraff OCS) afcer American encry imo che warC>. The provisions ofjoim Actio1z'l
Chapcer V1 on joinr overseas elCpedicions delineaced many of the operacional and
ractical missions of che Army, Navy, and Marine Corps as wcll as milirary and
naval aviatico m. The basic docuine for joim amphibious opcrarions was chus
largely ser before che war, bur rhc dcrails ofunlficd command would only be rcsolved
during the war r6l.
Tbc ourbreak of war io Europe in 1939 reawakened che Army's incercst in
landing operations. Then che sudden coLLapse of France and expulsion of British
forces from che continenc in May-June 1940 compelled a full revision of the Joinr
Board's "Ra.inbow" war plans. In reevaluating ics plans for a European conflict,
rhe Army reaHzed thar largescale amphibious operarions would be required becausc